Overall, females tend to age more slowly, except for their skin, but they may have more difficulty accepting it. Their skin is thinner and more susceptible to damage from exposure to environmental factors such as cigarette smoke. It begins to wrinkle at an earlier age (10 years earlier on the average) and wrinkles more easily.

Males tend to age more quickly than females but often accept it better. Their skin is thicker and screens out some of the sun’s ultraviolet rays. Hair follicles act to reinforce the skin (much like steel reinforces concrete) and slow the development of wrinkles. Females and males have equal numbers of body hairs overall, but the body hair on females is often finer in texture. Females lose about 100 scalp hairs per day but most of them grow back. Male body hair tends to be distributed differently with more on the chest area. Males tend to lose about 100 scalp hairs per day but fewer grow back due to heredity and higher testosterone levels.

Females Tend to lose brain tissue later in the aging process and lose less of it overall. Prone to lose tissue in the hippocampus and parietal lobes, areas concerned with memory and visual-spatial abilities. Their center of gravity is lower so when they fall, they tend to fall backward, which can result in back injuries.

Males Brain tissue shrinks faster with age, which can result in a faster decline in loss of cognitive abilities. Prone to lose tissue in the frontal and temporal lobes, areas concerned with thinking and feeling. Their center of gravity is higher so when they fall, they tend to fall forward, which can result in facial damage and injuries due to broken glasses.

Alcohol is the most widely used drug in the United States. According to Donna Israel PhD, estimates are that 70% of males and 61% of females drink alcohol. Approximately 1 in 5 males and 1 in 7 females ingest beyond social drinking.

Moderation is defined as:

• Females – One 12-oz beer or 4 oz of wine
• Males – Two 12-oz beers or 8 oz of wine

Problem drinking is defined as:

• Females – 2 or more drinks per day or more than 4 oz of wine
• Males – Three or more drinks per day or more than 8 oz of wine

Drinking to intoxication is highly associated with abuse, assaults, knifings, and murder. Risk factors for developing alcohol dependence include genetic predisposition

• 73% genetic risk for early alcohol dependence
• 30% genetic risk for late alcohol dependence

Smoking has been found to be a pre-cursor for alcohol dependence. Individuals in alcohol recovery who also smoke, tend do better in the longterm when they address smoking and alcohol concurrently. A study in Issues in Mental Health Nursing (2004) showed that the following difficulties emerge during alcohol addiction:

• Self-deception
• Guilt, anxiety, depression
• Unhealthy preoccupation with alcohol

Females

Males

Tend to drink to relax, unwind, and feel better about themselves. Are at higher risk for liver damage from drinking the same amounts of alcohol as compared to males (e.g., 12-year study showed liver problems when averaging 7-13 drinks per week). Are more prone to brain shrinkage and overall brain damage (e.g., have more brain shrinkage even if start drinking later in life and consume less lifetime alcohol amounts). Alcohol abuse-induced brain damage tends to occur in the frontal cortex, cerebellum, hippocampus, corpus callosum, and temporal lobes. Tend to be more susceptible to alcohol-related degenerative skeletal disease and heart diseases. Are especially vulnerable to one or more co-existing psychiatric disorders when alcohol dependent: 48% have mood disorders such as depression and bipolar disorder 38% have anxiety disorders 23% have personality disorders Note: 40% had no pre-existing psychiatric disorder before the addiction to alcohol.

Tend to drink more and do so in order to relax, unwind, feel better about themselves, increase their sense of competitiveness, escape current problems and inner conflicts, and to mask feelings of inadequacy, low self-esteem, and ins. 12-year study showed liver problems when averaging 14-27 drinks per week. Have a 2-3 times the lifetime risk for alcohol dependence (rates may be much higher in Japan since female access to

Males and females tend to approach episodes involving loss and/or grief very differently. Typically they also exhibit widely differing coping strategies and styles of behaviors in situations of loss and grief.

Because of societal expectations that males should remain in control of their emotions at all times (essentially be silent about them) males may fail to articulate their grief. The unexpressed pain can trigger an emotional retreat into stony silence, attempts at suicide, or violent behaviors. Unresolved grief from the past can increase the intensity of their reaction to present episodes of loss. They may react out of proportion to the situation at hand because of their accumulated slush-fund of stored, unresolved emotional pain. Females, on the other hand, have been socialized to express grief aloud and encounter fewer taboos against crying. They may avoid taking constructive action, believing that talking is enough even when taking action could help them to cope more effectively. They can become stuck in recounting the loss and develop the habit of brooding. This enmeshment can delay acceptance and resolution and lead to immobility. Studies have shown that males tend to move to anger when the emotions of either fear or sadness arise (whether or not anger is the appropriate emotion for the situation). Females, on the other hand, are more likely to move directly to sadness when the emotions of either anger or fear arise (whether or not sadness is the appropriate emotion for the situation). I can be unhelpful to misidentify the emotion and can be a source of conflict and misunderstanding, especially at a time when supportive cross-gender communication may be vitally important. Due in part to the great disparity in grieving styles between the genders, some cross-gender relationships tend to fall apart after a major event that involves significant loss (where sadness is the appropriate emotion) or significant boundary invasion/crisis (where anger is the appropriate emotion). If the appropriate emotion is anger and the female goes to sadness, or the appropriate emotion is sadness and the male goes to anger, the potential for misunderstanding escalates. Even when partners do not separate they may misread each other’s messages and fail to offer the support, acceptance, and nurturing that are so vitally needed for healthy healing and recovery. Males and females need to learn from each other’s strengths, share the burden of loss, recognize stereotypical gender tendencies, and encourage one another in implementing effective recovery strategies.

Stereotypical Approach to Grief Episodes

Females

Males

Generally exhibit more of an experience-oriented style of grieving Tend to be more comfortable articulating their loss and grief, verbalizing it to friends and family Have often been socialized to be more comfortable expressing grief through tears May rehearse endlessly and actually over process, believing that talking about it is enough and that no action is required May focus on the needs of others to the exclusion of taking good care of themselves (e.g., may fail to pamper themselves appropriately during recovery) May brood endlessly and fail to take constructive action that could help them to cope more effectively Challenges: Learn to take constructive action whether or not they feel like it at the moment Avoid perpetually indulging negative feelings and brooding endlessly over the incident

Generally exhibit more of a goal-oriented grieving style of grieving Tend to be less comfortable verbalizing their grief, and would rather fix the loss rather than discuss it May act out their grief (crash the car, get drunk, kick the cat, engage in high-risk behaviors) Tend to distance themselves from what reminds them of the loss, or run away from it (physically or emotionally) when the loss can’t be fixed May try to escape the emotional pain through work or other activities (e.g., TV, movies, sports, sex, food, drugs, sleep) May allow unresolved loss to build up inside where it can explode later on when another loss occurs Challenges: Learn to communicate verbally and articulate grief, to act out feelings in an appropriate manner Engage in effective grief recovery, realizing that emotional pain is not likely to resolve on its own

Both males and females can develop and implement good problem-solving skills. However, differences in emphasis are often displayed, which may be further compounded by factors such as one’s individual thinking process preference.

Females

Males

Tend to view problems as a hassle rather than a challenge Are socialized to be problem stators Tend to be more experience-oriented and can excel at long-range planning as compared to short-term planning, perhaps because they tend to see the bigger picture due to their more generalized style of processing information. In their concern for the big picture and final outcomes, however, they may procrastinate taking any action until the entire plan is formulated, which can delay implementation. Generally they are better at solving problems of a general nature.

Tend to view problems as a challenge, a goal to be accomplished. Are socialized to be problem fixers Tend to excel at short-range planning, perhaps because of their increased emphasis on goal setting and attainment and a more lateralized style of processing information. They can get off the dime quickly when something needs to be fixed. They don’t always see the bigger picture, however. Thus, long-range planning can suffer as they concentrate on taking immediate action to fix whatever they perceive to be the problem. Generally they are better at solving problems if the problems are quite specific in nature.

According to author Joe Tannenbaum in his book, Male and Female Realities:

Female Brains

Male Brains

• Can relate to the world via physical or intellectual modes but they can also relate directly through emotions and feelings without having to translate into either the physical or intellectual modes. If they speak directly from a feelings mode, the males may misread or misunderstand what the females are saying because, typically, males avoid venturing into the more nebulous realms of feelings. • While they can translate spiritual information into physical and intellectual modes, they can also respond through direct feeling states that are outside physical language and intellectual definition. They can experience a spiritual relationship with a Higher Power directly through emotions and feelings without having to translate it into either physical or intellectual modes. • When discussing spirituality or religion, are usually expected to respond from either a physical or intellectual mode, at least by their male counterparts.

• Tend to relate to the world primarily through a physical mode (e.g., objects that are perceived through the five senses) or an intellectual mode (e.g., thinking, imagining, attitudes, viewpoint). • Tend to translate spiritual information either into a physical mode (e.g., building cathedrals, creating statues or art work, designing flags or icons or other symbolic objects) or into an intellectual mode (e.g., dogma, rituals, philosophy, doctrine, rules, regulations). • Generally assume that females also speak from a physical or intellectual mode, as well, even when they are discussing topics involving spiritual or religious issues.

Affiliation with Religion Dr. Donald Joy reported study results that showed girls tend to be influenced more strongly by what they learn through attendance at Sunday School or Sabbath School while boys were more influenced by what actually went on in the home, specifically the congruence between stated beliefs versus observed behaviors. In terms of being drawn to affiliation with religion, studies by Dr. Donald Joy of Asbury Theological Seminary showed that males were more likely to be drawn to religious affiliation through stories and parables processed in the right hemisphere. Males are more likely to fall asleep in church, especially when sermons are presented in a typical left-brained style. Females tended to be drawn to religious affiliation through doctrinal presentations processed in the left hemisphere. Thus, even though they may enjoy stories/parables, they may find left-brained sermons more tolerable. Attendance at Religious Services Females tend to attend religious services more regularly (e.g., two-thirds of the average church congregation in the U.S.A. are female). They are often more experience-oriented and more emotional in terms of their religious activities. They are more likely to attend church for the experience of worshiping with friends. Females may find it more difficult to pursue activities recommended by religious leaders, such as specific reading quotas, even when these are purported to assist them in developing a relationship with a Higher Power. Males tend to attend religious services less regularly (e.g., special occasions, when in charge). Males are usually more goal-oriented in terms of religious activities. They can accomplish a goal by attending a service, or by reading a sacred/religious book. With their goal-completion orientation, however, males may lose sight of the importance of enjoying the experience of worship, or may fail to develop a spiritual connection with a Higher Power.

Female Brain

Male Brain

Females have 15-20% higher rates of blood flow to the brain. They are less likely to suffer occlusive strokes but more likely to experience hemorrhagic strokes. Generally, they are likely to recover more easily from brain injuries such as these. They may experience brain electrical storms (e.g., seizures, epilepsy attacks) with equal frequency but there are fewer related deaths. Tends to generate high levels of fine motor coordination. Females typically do better at tasks that require these skills (e.g., typing, needlework, neurosurgery).

Males are at higher risk for long-term disability due to brain injuries both from lower rates of blood flow, and from their more lateralized style of thought processing. While they tend to have an equal incidence of brain electrical storms, they evidence a 30% higher related death rate. Tends to generate less manual dexterity in terms of fine motor coordination. Males score equally with females on video games after the same amount of practice.

Gender differences are sometimes grouped rather arbitrarily into three main categories: primary, secondary, and tertiary differences. Some differences aren’t easily relegated to one category, however, or contributing factors are not well understood as yet, if at all.

Primary Differences  • Genes • Chromosomes • Brain function • External genitalia • Reproductive organs • Bone structure • Vision / hearing

Secondary Differences • Facial hair • Body hair • Vocal pitch • Body fat distribution • Muscle to fat ratio • Posture • Style of walk

Tertiary Differences • Nonverbals • Word usage • Speech styles • Use of body space • Expression of emotions • Grief recovery styles

Here are some additional examples.

• Males tend to carry books under the arm, females against the chest. Does this represent a primary, secondary, or tertiary difference or is it unrelated?
• More males are left-handed. Left-handed males tend to be concrete, pictorial, affective, and verbal. They are also more likely to suffer from immune diseases, migraine headaches, and learning disabilities. Fewer females are left-handed. Even when left-handed, however, they tend to use the right cerebral hemisphere less efficiently than do left-handed males.
• Since women have found their way into space (space travel, that is), studies show that females can survive more tumbling and disorientation in space before showing signs of shock, perhaps due to increased ability of their muscles to handle chemical imbalances and/or fluid/hormonal changes. Females also survive better in situations such as shipwreck, perhaps due to an increased ability to metabolize fat more efficiently.
• In terms of perception of equality, males tend to believe that different from women equates with being superior. Males have also been conditioned to believe they have an innate right to rule over other human beings, especially females. Females, on the other hand, are more certain that democracy is the preferred form of government (e.g., there have been very few female absolute dictators in history). Is this related to brain function, socialization, to a combination of both, or to some other factor?
• Females tend to accept teasing more playfully while males are more likely to respond to teasing with aggression.
• Females tend to find jokes less funny overall and may chuckle rather than laugh outright. They may be less amused by what they perceive as poor jokes, but tend to rate jokes defined as very funny even higher than their male counterparts do.
• Males tend to find jokes funnier, generally give most jokes a higher rating, and are more likely to laugh harder at them. Males tend to try harder to be funny and actually may be five times funnier as compared to females (see note regarding types of humor below).

Since a sense of humor is learned, does this represent a primary, secondary, or tertiary difference or is it unrelated? Humor comes in many varieties and both its use and its appreciation is very personal and subjective. Types of humor that have been identified include:

• Cognitive humor (fairly sophisticated type including off-the-wall humor such as Larson’s The Far Side cartoons). When you get the joke a sensation comes over you from the sudden mental integration of incongruous ideas, attitudes, or situations.
• Conative humor (other people’s misfortune including slapstick). It can produce a smug feeling of superiority such as when we laugh at someone slipping on a banana peel.
• Affective humor (racial, cultural, or so-called smutty jokes).
• Orectic humor (a combination of conative and affective types of humor). Males and extroverted females are more likely to appreciate orectic humor.

Do these differences represent primary, secondary, or tertiary differences or are they unrelated to these categories? It’s fun to speculate but there is much that is still unknown. Where it Begins The human brain begins to develop soon after conception, some say by the fourth day. This is at once exciting and frightening because a woman may not realize she is pregnant until she is several weeks or even months along. Some change their lifestyle once the pregnancy is identified, some don’t. Either way, the little fetal brain is impacted. The prenatal period is a time of incredible growth for the fetal brain. At peak periods of development new brain cells are generated at the rate of a quarter of a million per second. Hard to believe! It’s the only time during one’s lifespan that the development of the nervous system occurs so quickly. By the time the fetus is ready to make its way into the world, perhaps 100 trillion synaptic connections are already in place. With growth rates like this it’s no wonder that accidents sometimes happen. That is, the developing fetal brain is vulnerable to a variety of nature/nurture events that can potentially change the way in which it develops. Some alterations may not be readily evident at birth, if ever. Others can influence his/her brain for an entire lifetime! The fetal brain is extremely vulnerable during the first few weeks after it first begins to develop. The cerebellum may be most vulnerable to damage about forty-five days after fertilization, the thinking brain at about eighty-five days. Incidentally, prenatal exposure to alcohol may be a leading cause of mental retardation worldwide. Ionizing radiation has a significant effect on brain development within eight to fifteen weeks after conception. The main sections of brain tissue are visible by the seventh week of gestation. In adulthood, the brain weighs approximately three pounds and contains upwards of 100 billion neurons, more than 900 billion neuroglia (supporting cells), and 80-250 million fibers in the corpus callosum (it will differ in size and composition depending upon whether it resides in a male brain or a female brain).

Eating disorders such as anorexia, bulimia nervosa, binge eating, and body dysmorphic disorder or BDD, affect about 5 million American each year. The majority are Caucasian and female. About three quarters of the individuals were adolescents when the symptoms first began.

Society and media contribute to the expectation that possessing a trim, slim, fit body will lead to sexual attractiveness and popularity. General consensus is moving toward the position that eating disorders are not about food but are about control issues. As many as 9 out of 10 individuals with an eating disorder are believed to have a co-existing psychiatric condition and need to be evaluated by a mental health professional. Risk factors include:

• Being female (although the numbers of males are increasing)
• Middle or upper class socioeconomic status
• Family history of eating disorders
• Unresolved family issues
• Unsuccessful attempts at weight loss and/or dieting
• Engaging in activities that value slimness (e.g., dance, modeling, some sports)
• History of sexual abuse
• Type 1 diabetes
• Psychological problems (e.g., low self-esteem, decreased self-confidence, depression, skewed body image)
• Psychiatric co-morbidity

Females with Clinical Diagnosis of Eating Disorder

Males with Clinical Diagnosis of Eating Disorder

• 80% of patients

• 20% of patients NOTE: There appears to be a growing higher risk of anorexia nervosa, bulimia, and body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). Body dissatisfaction is showing up in greater numbers in ever-younger boys. BDD is characterized as a somatoform disorder – a preoccupation with imagined or slight defects in appearance that inflicts significant emotional distress and impairs social, personal, and professional life.

According to the American Journal of Psychiatry Toronto group study (2001), the following were clinical ratios of females to males: Anorexia Nervosa Syndrome:

• Full anorexia syndrome: 4.0 females to 1.0 males
• Partial anorexia syndrome: 4.0 females to 1.5 males

Bulimia Nervosa Syndrome

• Full bulimia nervos: 11.0 females to 4.0 males
• Partial bulimia nervosa: 1.8 females to 1.0 males

Binge Eating Disorder (high correlation with obesity):

• Full binge eating disorder: 3.0 females to 2.0 males

Females tend to have long-term friendships with both genders and have more friendships after middle age. Generally, the individuals are more important than the type of activity. They may perceive that the encounter was less than satisfying if both the quantity and quality of conversation fell below their desired standards.

Males generally prefer the company of other men to that of women. Often gravitate toward companionship encounters (e.g., select an activity and then ask someone to join them in the activity) where the type of activity is at least as important as the friendship. Males don’t have to converse during a given activity to perceive that the encounter was satisfying. Studies show that most females enjoy being mothers more than most men enjoy being fathers. However, females tend to suffer less from the empty nest syndrome. They can find it a relief to be able to do other things. Females spend more time holding and soothing daughters than sons. Most males usually look forward to having children although they rarely have any idea of the impact a baby will make on their marriage and way of life. Males tend to touch newborn sons more than newborn daughters. Humor Moment A man and a woman were discussing the “rules are sacred” perspective of the male brain. “I have the list of rules,” the man said, grinning. “The list?” the woman asked. “Yes, the list,” he confirmed. “The ten rules.”

1. We need the toilet seat up. If you need it down, put it down. You don’t hear us complaining about your leaving it down.
2. Birthdays, Valentines Day, and anniversaries are not exam situations to determine if we’ve found the perfect gift. Ask for what you want. Don’t hint. Just say it! We cannot read minds. Our lack of mind-reading ability is a genetic thing, not evidence that we don’t care about you!
3. Dates are extremely energy-intensive to track. If you want us to pay attention to specific dates, mark them on the calendar. In addition, if they are really important to you, remind us frequently ahead of time. We’re happy to remember, we just need the reminder!
4. Christopher Columbus did not need directions, and neither do we. We’ll still get there faster than he did!
5. Sunday and sports go together like a full moon and tides. Accept it. Whenever possible, say whatever you have to say during the commercials. By the way, shopping is not a sport and never will be.
6. Yes or no are perfectly acceptable answers to almost every question you can think of. And if you ask a question for which you really don’t want an answer, expect an answer you really don’t want to hear.
7. Bring us a problem only if you want help solving it. That’s what we do—fix things. Get sympathy from your girlfriends.
8. A headache that lasts for 17 months could be a definite problem. Make an appointment with your doctor. And while you’re at it, check your oil. Please!
9. If we ask what is wrong and you say nothing, we will take your word at face value. We may think you’re lying, but it’s too much hassle trying to help you figure it out.
10. Ask us to do something or tell us how you want it accomplished. One or the other! If you already know the best way to do it, why not just do it and get it over with?

After perusing the list for some moments the woman said, “I have some definitions. Their purpose is to help men understand women’s speech more readily. Ten definitions,” she repeated.

1. Fine. This word signifies the end of any argument when women feel they are right but can’t stand to hear you argue any longer. It means that you should shut up. By the way, this is not the word to use when you’ve been asked to describe how she looks. To do so will likely lead to one of the arguments mentioned above.
2. Nothing. Actually this word means the opposite from its usual definition. It means that you need to be alert and pay attention. This word is often used to indicate that a woman feels like she’d like to turn you inside out, upside down, and backwards—at the very least! It is usually the signal for an argument that will last at least ten minutes and end with the word fine.
3. Go ahead. This phrase often means the opposite from its usual definition, too, especially if a raised eyebrow accompanies it. These words do not indicate permission to do something. On the contrary they represent something of a dare! If you mistake them for permission, the result will be that the woman may get upset over nothing, and you’ll experience a ten-minute discussion that will end with the word fine. On the other hand, this phrase without a raised eyebrow does not indicate permission, either. Rather, it signifies that the woman really means, “I give up,” or “Do what you want because I don’t care.” It is frequently preceded by a few seconds of raised eyebrow and followed by nothing and fine. Not to worry. She’ll likely speak to you again in ten or fifteen minutes when she cools off a bit.
4. Ten minutes. These words actually define the space of approximately half an hour. It is the equivalent to the ten minutes that your sports broadcast is going to last before you take out the trash, or let the dog out to do its thing, or come to bed. There shouldn’t be anything complicated about this.
5. A sigh. Although not actually a word, sighs are an important form of communication, and one of the few non-verbal sounds that are common to female speech. Men also frequently misunderstand them since sighs are rarely used in male speech. A loud sigh indicates that the woman is beginning to wonder if you are a complete idiot, and asking herself why she is spending her time arguing with you over nothing. A very soft sigh, on the other hand, suggests that the woman is momentarily content. Males are advised to remain still and hold their breathe in the hope that the moment will last for a long time.
6. Oh. Generally, the word “oh,” especially when followed by almost any other statement, signifies that big trouble is about to break over the landscape of your life. For instance, you might say, “I told your mother what you were up to last night.” If the woman opens her mouth and says, “Oh,” and looks like she is going to say anything else at all, do not walk—run from the room. Eventually she may say she is fine, but don’t expect any level of quality conversation for a minimum of two weeks.
7. That’s okay. Pay close attention to this one. This phrase constitutes one of the most innuendo-laden statements a woman can make to a man. It indicates that she wants to think long and hard before deciding what the penalty will be for whatever you have done. This phrase is frequently used in conjunction with the word fine, accompanied by a raised eyebrow. Don’t be misled. Once she’s had sufficient time to plan, you may be in for some mighty big trouble. Refer to “Oh” above.
8. Please do. First of all, this is not a statement. It is an offer. Avoid confusing the two. When she uses these words, a woman is giving you the opportunity to come up with an excuse for what you have done. Sometimes this is a chance to get into even more trouble! The good news is that if you handle this correctly, perhaps you can avoid hearing the phrase, that’s okay.
9. Thanks. If you hear this word, don’t faint and don’t look for hidden meanings. The woman is simply indicating her appreciation. Just say, “You’re welcome,” and let it go at that. Avoid shaking your head in amazement for the next hour. It’ll take more energy than it’s worth.
10. Thanks a lot. Although you may not realize it at first, this phrase differs dramatically from the word thanks. A woman tends to say thanks a lot when she is majorly (if not monumentally) ticked off, usually at you. Sometimes this phrase is followed by a loud sigh. If this occurs, it is usually a signal that her feelings have been hurt in some way. It is usually unhelpful to ask what is wrong after hearing a loud sigh. At that point in time, she will likely tell you nothing (see above definition), and if you can avoid an argument, it is prudent to do so.

I found it amusing to note that the definitions took more words than the rules. Both lists are, of course, tongue-in-cheek. They do point out how much adrenaline people can pump, how much energy they can expend, and how much ado they can often make over nothing! There is a better way. Understanding more about gender tendencies can offer options for more functional behaviors, especially in relation to cross-gender friendships.

Much of what we now know about the brain and gender differences is the result of a collective body of data that derive from a variety of research modalities. These include surveys, questionnaires, direct observations, physical measurements, autopsies, double-blind studies, and electronic testing devices that permit researchers to study brain function while the individual is alive. In general, the left cerebral hemisphere is more developed at birth in females. This gives girls an advantage in pre-school, kindergarten, and elementary grades for subjects that primarily utilize the left side of the brain. The right cerebral hemisphere is more developed at birth in males. This means that boys typically find subjects that require use of the left hemisphere more of a challenge in a typical elementary-school curriculum, but they tend to excel later on when subjects are added that utilize the right side of the brain (unless they’ve already dropped out of school). The two cerebral hemispheres are connected by a thick band of axons (e.g., 80-250 million). There are several layers to this pathway. Two are the Corpus Callosum and the Anterior Commissure. These connecting highways allow the right and left hemispheres to share information with each other and support each other’s functions as needed. The two sides of the thinking brain keep up a continuous conversation, if you will, via this bridge. Based on gender, studies have shown differences in the size of the Anterior Commissure (e.g., consistently larger in the female brain) and the Corpus Callosum (e.g., typically larger in the female brain. More connectors between the hemispheres in the female brain contribute to a generalized and empathizing style of functioning whereby both cerebral hemispheres continually work in together. Fewer connectors in the male brain give rise to a more lateralized and systemizing style of thinking. Female brains are somewhat smaller and lighter. They are more generalized in processing style and require more energy to run (e.g., second for second they utilize more oxygen, glucose, and micronutrients). Female brains tend to be more collegial and relational. Male brains tend to be somewhat larger and heavier. They are more lateralized in processing style. That is, part of the brain can be more energy-efficient for selected tasks (e.g., one part is working while others are idling). Because their brains tend to be more lateralized they are more energy efficient second for second. In addition, they tend to be more goal-oriented and hierarchical. Each cerebral hemisphere operates more independently. The disadvantage is that the male brain is at higher risk for conditions that are exacerbated by reduced hemispheric coordination such as dyslexia and hyperactivity. Males and females may approach the study of music and/or performance differently based on gender uniqueness in terms of brain function. For example, in general the male brain is more lateralized, goal-oriented, instrumental, and compartmentalized. Males may be more single-minded about pursuing the study of music, setting goals for musical accomplishments, and preparing for one specific performance. With a more lateralized and goal-oriented brain, males may find it easier to focus for longer periods of time (e.g., a 90-minute lesson, a 2-hour practice session, several hours consecutively devoted to composing or arranging, preparing one specific performance). Typically the female brain is more generalized, expressive, collegial, and at least equally concerned about the quality of the experience on the way to the goal as compared to pursuing the actual goal. With a more generalized and collegial brain, females may find it more of a challenge to focus in the way that is expected of and that works for the male brain. Females tend to be more concerned about the quality of the journey on the way to the goal. They may want more variety and may find it more of a challenge to prepare for one specific performance.

Females

Males

• Female musicians may have more hesitancy about leaving family and friends behind to “go on the road” and may try to take everyone along. They may also take more breaks from their career path to devote time to family. • Females tend to concentrate better and practice or perform more easily in an environment with fewer distractions. This could mean, for example, that can find it more of a challenge to focus in on the goal and concentrate during practice or performance situations when the environment contains distractions (e.g., extraneous sounds).

• Male musicians may have less hesitancy about leaving family and friends behind to “go on the road” and follow their dreams, leaving partner/children at home. • Typically, the male brain is able to focus in on the goal and concentrate more easily during practice or performance situations when the environment contains some distractions (e.g., extraneous sounds).

These differences can be challenging in cross-gender situations (e.g., male teacher with female student or female teacher with male student). The way in which the teacher structures the lesson time and interacts with the student’s brain (based on male or female brain) can have a huge impact on the student’s musical success. A male student may be able to goal-orientedly plow solidly on during a 2 hour lesson with minimal breaks. A female student may need more breaks in which to chat about the impact of the music on her life and/or connect personally with the teacher. Humor-Music Impact A difference in terms of appreciation of humor can impact situations involving cross-gender or mixed-group activities, such as practice sessions or performance situations. For example:

Females

Males

• Females tend to find jokes less funny overall and may chuckle rather than laugh outright. They tend to be less amused by what they perceive as poor jokes but tend to rate jokes defined as very funny even higher than their male counterparts do. • Females tend to accept teasing more playfully. • Extroverted females are more likely to appreciate orectic humor (e.g., slapstick, laughing as the expense of other people’s misfortune such as someone slipping on a banana peel, racial/cultural/smutty jokes).

• Males to find jokes funnier, generally give most jokes a higher rating, and are more likely to laugh harder at them. Males tend to try harder to be funny and actually may be five times funnier (as compared to females). • Males are more likely to respond to teasing with aggression. • Males are more likely to appreciate orectic humor (e.g., slapstick, laughing as the expense of other people’s misfortune such as someone slipping on a banana peel, racial/cultural/smutty jokes).

Females tend to hear better than males (have less acute hearing), and this difference only becomes more pronounced throughout life. For example, eleven-year-old girls are distracted by noise levels that are approximately 10 times softer than the levels that boys find distracting.

• If you are working with girls, keep the room as free of extraneous noise and distraction as possible, and avoid raising your voice (if male presenter, speak more softly). Small group learning can be a good strategy for an all-girl group.
• If you are working with boys, speak up, especially if female presenter. Avoid small-group learning situations. When in small groups, boys are often rewarded by their friends for being disruptive.
• If you are working with boys and girls in the same classroom, put all the boys in front and the girls in the back of the classroom. This can help boys to hear better, while the sound of the teacher’s voice will be more comfortable for the girls.

Female Brains	Male Brains
• Tend to have more acute hearing overall – are easily distracted by sound	• Tend to have less acute hearing overall
• As early as age eleven, tend to be distracted by noise levels that are about 10 times softer than the levels that comparable boys find distracting	• Hearing differences become more pronounced throughout life

Processing of Voice Sounds by Gender A study at the University of Sheffield and published in the journal NeuroImage found differences in the way the male and female brains process voice sounds. Females typically process voice sounds in Wernicke’s area in the left cerebral hemisphere. Males tend to process male voice sounds in Wernicke’s area, but process female voice sounds in the auditory portion of the right hemisphere used for processing melody lines. Females tend to listen with both hemispheres and pick up more nuances of tonality in voice sounds and in other sounds (e.g., crying, moaning). Males tend to listen primarily with one hemisphere and do not hear the same nuances of tonality (e.g., may miss the warning tone in a female voice)

• As compared to a male voice, the female voice is more difficult for males to listen to
• The female voice may be processed by males as “a melody line” or as “background music”
• To increase the likelihood of being heard by a male, a female needs to lower her voice pitch and keep it even (avoid pitch variation), speak louder, and lower inflections at the end of sentences.

Researcher Dr. Michael Hunter said: “The female voice is actually more complex than the male voice, due to differences in the size and shape of the vocal cords and larynx between men and women, and also due to women having greater natural ‘melody’ in their voices. This causes a more complex range of sound frequencies than in a male voice.”

Females typically are more concerned with health and nutrition. They generally appear to take better care of themselves and their health. They purchase 75% of all vitamin supplements sold in the United States and take 61% of those purchased.

Stereotypically, at least, males appear to be less concerned about health and nutrition overall, although they may be more likely to participate in physical fitness programs. Tongue in cheek, some males act as if they believe the four food groups are fast, fried, fat, and frozen. Although they refuse to overtly concern themselves about their health, males may actually worry more than women do. There is also some evidence that left-handed males may worry more than right-handed males.

Females

Males

• Girls tend to have higher levels of cytokine IL-10 both during and after surgery to repair heart defects and, as a result, recovered more easily. A female sex hormone, Progesterone, stimulates the release of cytokines, which can increase or decrease systemic inflammation. • Females tend to have less aerobic power. They breathe more frequently (20 times per minute) but less deeply at each inspiration. • Shallower breathing may be a factor in the lowered amounts of damage resulting from lead poisoning due to exhaust fumes. • Phobias affect women anywhere from 3 to 10 times more frequently than men. Approximately 90% of agoraphobia patients are female.

• Boys tend to recover less easily from heart operations to repair heart defects, perhaps due to lower levels of cytokine IL-10. • Males tend to breathe less often (16 times per minute) but more deeply at each inspiration. They inhale about 2300 gallons of air per day. After age 12, males have from 15%-30% more aerobic power than females. Part of their increased aerobic power is likely due to their higher lung capacity. • Because males draw more air into their lungs, they may be at high risk from air pollution, and at higher risk when undergoing general anesthetic. Studies of exhaust fumes (a source of lead) have shown that children with the highest concentrations of lead in their bodies scored lowest on IQ tests, and that the boys scored even lower than the girls.

The female body tends to manufacture blood more efficiently. Their blood is generally thinner and clots more slowly, perhaps because it contains 20% fewer red blood cells. The male body tends to manufacture blood less efficiently. Their blood is generally thicker, heavier, redder (e.g., perhaps due to higher numbers of red blood cells), and tends to clot more quickly. This may place males at higher risk for undergoing surgical procedures. Males report 50% fewer general headaches, but more migraines. Why then, stereotypically, does a male come home from work, say he’s too exhausted even to go out for dinner, and slump in front of the TV while expecting his partner to fix the evening meal? Perhaps part of the answer lies in the fact that females statistically have more endurance. For example, the capacity to exercise drops 2% for every ten years of age for females, but drops 10% for every ten years of age for males.

Sometime after the sixth week of pregnancy, the chemical-hormonal mix to which the developing fetal brain is exposed may change based on the chromosomes present and/or based on available androgens in the mother’s body. If there is a “Y” chromosome present it calls for the mother’s androgens to give the brain a chemical bath. The process is designed to change the brain from the default position into what society calls a male brain. This chemical bath results in a number of changes to the fetal brain, including:

• Turns the brain a lavender color temporarily
• Slows the maturation of left hemisphere and allows the right hemisphere to flourish
• Modifies the corpus callosum
• Alters the size in 12 identified areas (9 areas are larger in male brain)
• Changes the structure of the inner ear

A large bundle of horizontal nerve fibers connects the right and left hemispheres of the brain. These commissure tracks contain axons that conduct nerve impulses. This permits one hemisphere to know what is going on in the other, and enables them to collaborate and work together. Metaphorically, compare this to a bridge that has two layers or decks (much like The Bay Bridge that connects San Francisco with the East Bay has two decks). One deck is known as the Corpus Callosum, the other as the Anterior Commissure (a more primitive connection that links subconscious areas of the cerebral hemispheres). Studies have shown a difference in the size of the anterior commissure between male and female brains.

Females	Males
• The anterior commissure is larger in the female brain	• The anterior commissure is smaller in the male brain

Studies have shown a difference in the size of the corpus callosum between male and female brains, as well, but controversy exists about magnitude. The corpus callosum may be relatively larger in some female brains both from gestational development and from an earlier onset of puberty, as is the anterior commissure. A larger corpus callosum, with up to 40% more connecting fibers shown in some studies, contributes to a more generalized style of processing information (e.g., female brain is generally better equipped to integrate left and right hemisphere thinking). The corpus callosum in the male brain consists of relatively fewer connecting fibers of smaller diameter. This probably results both from its gestational chemical bath and a later onset of puberty (see illustration below).

Cutaway showing a larger corpus callosum in the female brain

Cutaway showing a smaller corpus callosum in the male brain

Females

Males

The corpus callosum in the female brain is thicker, consisting of a higher number of connecting fibers of larger diameter. There may be several contributing factors: The brain doesn’t receive a chemical bath so the corpus callosum is not reduced in size. The corpus callosum thins out until puberty. Since females reach puberty earlier, there is less thinning. The larger corpus callosum contributes to a more generalized style of processing information.

The corpus callosum in the male brain has fewer connecting fibers of smaller diameter. There may be several contributing factors: The male brain receives a chemical bath that reduces the size of the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum thins out until puberty and since males reach puberty later, more thinning can occur. The reduced corpus callosum contributes to a lateralized processing style. It also increases the risk for conditions that are exacerbated by coordination between the cerebral hemispheres (e.g., dyslexia, hyperactivity).

In a study of blindfolded right-handed boys and girls, each was given two objects to hold: one in each hand. The objects were then removed and mixed in with other similar items. The blindfolds were removed and the children were asked to select the objects they had held in their hands. Boys were more accurately able to identify objects held in their left hands (processed by their spatial right hemisphere.) Girls were able to identify objects held in either hand with the same degree of accuracy. In a similar way, the lateral transmission between the hemispheres through the Corpus Callosum allows the female brain to quickly consult all of her past experience when processing information and making decisions. In most cases, the female brain can do this faster and arrive at an answer more quickly than does the male brain, sometimes giving an almost instantaneous response. NOTE: Fewer women are left-handed. Even when left-handed, however, they tend to use the right hemisphere less efficiently than comparable males (perhaps because of a tendency toward a generalized style of processing information). More males are left-handed. Left-handed males tend to be more concrete, pictorial, affective, and verbal. They are also more likely to suffer from learning disabilities, immune diseases, and migraine headaches. Hemispheric Connections and Energy One of the first things of interest to note when discussing functional differences between male and female brains is that, second for second, female brains require more energy to run (e.g., utilize more oxygen, glucose, and micronutrients). Perhaps that is because if any part of the brain is on, all parts are on, the female brain being more generalized in processing style. This means that when a male and a female brain are collaborating on the same problem, given that the brains are similar in age, education, and experience, the female brain will utilize more energy and may tire more quickly. Male brains, on the other hand, tend to be more lateralized in processing style. That is, part of the brain can be more energy-efficient for selected tasks (e.g., one part is working while others are idling). This makes the brain more energy efficient second for second. The lateralization processing style of the male brain is related to the uniqueness of its corpus callosum; the generalized processing style of the female brain is related to the uniqueness of its corpus callosum.

Female Brain	Male Brain
• Metabolic rates in the cortex are identical in both genders. • Females have higher metabolic rates in the portion of the emotional brain that anticipates and handles symbolic processing.	• Males have higher metabolic rates in the so-called older limbic system (e.g., the portion of the emotional brain that handles gut reactions). • Males tend to activate different areas of the brain (from females) both when thinking and at rest.

Highway Metaphor Metaphorically, a generalized versus lateralized processing style can be compared to a six-lane freeway versus a two-lane highway. With their six-lane corpus-callosum freeway, females tend to spend a lot more time on the road, so to speak. They engage in multiple tasking, quickly alternating their attention from one task to another. The male brain, on the other hand, prefers to complete a task in one area of the brain prior to getting out onto its two-lane corpus-callosum highway and traveling to another area. This can be a source of conflict for cross-gender couples if the female asks the male to “drop everything and help me,” when he isn’t ready to change concentration. The male, on the other hand, may be very critical of the female who “doesn’t completely finish one task before jumping to another.” Intuition and Female Sixth Sense Introduce the topic of intuition into almost any group and you just signed on for a lively conversation. Some don’t believe intuition even exists. Others think it probably does but don’t think they’re particularly intuitive. Still others have honed their sense of intuition and use it regularly. The function of intuition is believed to be located in the right frontal lobe of the thinking brain. Therefore, individuals who prefer to use the right frontal lobe are often very intuitive (have hunches) in regard to new ideas and products, male or female. Because of its generalized style of processing the female brain has an additional type of intuition, called the sixth sense of intuitive knowing by some. This means that females are often better at sensing the difference between what people actually say and what they really mean. They can pick up, as it were, vibrations of a very short wavelength almost as soon as they are generated. They can also readily assimilate the information absorbed, even peripherally, from the environment. At times, however, females have been socialized to discount this intuitive sense, often to their detriment.

John Martellaro of the Kansas City Star reported on an informal survey among stand-up comics. There was general agreement on tendencies toward gender differences with respect to humor. (Howard, Pierce J., PhD. The Owner’s Manual for the Brain, pages 170-175.)

Summary of Selected Humor Differences

Female Brain

Male Brain

• Enjoy jokes that involve childbirth and raising children • Generally have a “dry” sense of humor • Are more likely to laugh at jokes at their own expense • Enjoy jokes about relationships and gender differences • Prefer to experience a scenario rather than just a quick punch line • Typically tend to be turned off by graphically dirty humor • Like Seinfeld, Jay Leno, “Cheers,” W. C. Fields, “Family Ties,” etc.

• Are more likely to appreciate silly or slapstick humor • Typically respond to dirtier or cruder humor (e.g., doesn’t have to be especially intelligent), and/or humor laced with profanities • Are more likely to laugh at jokes at other people’s expense • Tend to be less patient with longer prologues (e.g., get to the punch line) • Tend to like anything physical and aggressive • Like the “Three Stooges,” cartoons such as The Simpsons, John Cleese, Tim Allen’s “Home Improvement,” etc.

Summary of Selected Laughter Differences

Female Brain	Male Brain
• While the average speaker laughs 46% more than the audience, female speakers tend to laugh 127% more than their male audiences. Conclusion: Women tend to be the laughers	• While the average speaker laughs 46% more than the audience, male speakers tend to laugh 7% less than their female audiences. Conclusion: Males tend to be the humor producers

NOTE: Some studies have not found evidence that females laugh more than males. Bachorowsk, Jo-Anne I, PhD, and Michael J. Owren, PhD. Laughing Matters. Psychological Science Agenda, Volume 18: No. 9, September 2004. Website: http://www.apa.org/science/psa/sb-bachorowski.html Summary of Selected Brain Differences Many aspects of humor response have universal characteristics but some brain differences have been observed. Websites: http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/102/45/16496

Female Brain

Male Brain

fMRI Study of viewing cartoons: • Appears to recruit specific brain regions to a greater extent than males when presented with humorous stimuli • Activates the left prefrontal cortex more than males, suggesting a greater degree of executive processing and language-based decoding; and more robust recruitment of mesolimbic reward regions, suggesting greater reward network activity during humor response NOTE: The funnier the cartoon, the more the reward center – the nucleus accumbens – was activated (perhaps because the females appeared to have less expectation of a reward, which in this case was the punch line of the cartoon, so when they got to the joke’s punch line, they were more pleased about it).

fMRI Study of viewing cartoons: • Unfunny events produced deactivation of nucleus accumbens in males (perhaps because they expected the cartoons to be funny and when they weren’t, there was a dip in activity) NOTE: If subsequent studies show that the female dopaminergic systems of the brain are more sensitive to emotional stimuli, including negative stimuli, this may be of clinical import in explaining sex discrepancies in the frequency of mood disorders, particularly the fact that women are about twice as likely as men to experience clinical symptoms of depression.

Although the male brain is generally larger than the female brain, absolute brain size appears to have little to do with intelligence. Scientists have found that the brains of mentally challenged individuals were sometimes larger than those of geniuses. For another, many different “types” of intelligences have been identified (e.g., emotional, intellectual, mathematical, musical, linguistic, spatial). It is difficult to test for, or to assess these differing types of intelligences, especially since most of our traditional methods of assessment involve words and some types of intelligences are not easily assessed by means of verbal skills.

Although IQ testing is falling into disfavor?or at least is not being relied upon to the degree it has been in the past, as a valid or infallible measure, and rightly so?there are some interesting observations about past samplings of IQ scores. For example, large sample testing shows no difference in averaged overall IQ scores based on gender. This has presented a paradox in terms of towering geniuses—most of which have been male. A factor in this puzzle may be the difference in lateralization. The male brain may function like a pair of specialists; the female brain like a generalist. There is some evidence that IQ scores can be raised 10-15 points depending on the way in which an individual’s brain is nurtured, stimulated, and challenged, which can further complicate the process of drawing conclusions about “intelligence” through the use of traditional IQ testing.

Female Brains

Male Brains

• IQ test section scores tend to be higher in areas that require language fluency (e.g., synonyms, homonyms). In the USA a female holds the highest recorded IQ score. • There doesn’t appear to be any relationship between IQ scores and career accomplishment in females. In one study, two thirds of women with genius IQ levels of 170 or above were housewives or office workers. • Tend to achieve higher IQ scores in test situations when the environment is quiet and free from distraction. This may reflect the more generalized style of processing and an increased sensitivity to sounds.

• IQ test section scores are often higher in areas that require mathematical and/or spatial reasoning. In test situations, males tend to achieve higher scores when there is some distraction in the environment. • There is a close relationship between IQ scores and career accomplishment. Males with high IQ scores are usually high achievers. • Tend to achieve higher IQ scores in test situations when there is some noise or distraction in the environment. This may reflect the more lateralized style of processing and a more focused orientation toward setting and achieving goals.

Although overall scores average out equally, the type of intelligence and section scores differ by gender. Males tend to score higher on sections that require the use of visual-spatial ability while females excel on sections that assess vocabulary and word usage. When IQ scores are plotted across the bell curve of distribution, another gender difference can be identified. IQ scores for females are distributed quite evenly across the bell curve of distribution while scores for males are distributed more heavily at either end. This means that there are more males (than females) in institutions for the mentally challenged; there are also more male towering geniuses in the fields of art, literature, and music. IQ and Birth Order There appears to be a relationship between sex hormone levels at birth and the IQ of the eldest child. One study showed that if the firstborn is a boy and several years have elapsed before the birth of a second son, the hormone levels in the mother seem to bounce back and the younger brother may have the advantage of the same rich hormonal mix as the firstborn. The girl that follows a firstborn boy, however, will not have the benefit of the higher hormonal mix. If the firstborn is female there doesn’t seem to be such a definite dip in hormones for the second child. Therefore, there may be some argument for having a girl first and then a boy several years later. Interestingly enough however, some studies show that both males and females hope their first child will be a boy.

Females

Males

• Because their left hemisphere matures first, females can excel in elementary school classes because many activities are geared to left hemisphere learning. • Females are more likely to develop math anxiety and may have more difficulty with subjects such as geometry, trigonometry, chemistry, biology, and physics. • Their right hemisphere may take twice as long to develop as it does for comparable males. About 25% of females do well in spatial tests. • Females tend to breathe more frequently but less deeply at each inspiration. Shallower breathing may be a factor in the amount of damage resulting from lead poisoning due to exhaust fumes.

• The right cerebral hemisphere is more developed at birth and becomes more specialized by the age of six. Males may be at a disadvantage in the typical elementary school because of an emphasis on left hemisphere subjects. • Males often excel in right hemisphere subjects (e.g., geometry, trigonometry, chemistry, biology, physics) if they are still in school by the high school years. • Males tend to be superior at tasks involving spatial ability. About 75% do well in spatial tests. • Males tend to breathe less often but more deeply at each inspiration. This may place them at higher risk when undergoing general anesthetics. It may also place boys at higher risk for breathing in toxic fumes. For example, boys scored lower than girls in studies of children with high concentrations of lead in their bodies.

Studies reported recently in the British Medical Journal, Lancet, indicate that females likely obtain their IQ genes (cross-linked) from their father. Males likely obtain their IQ genes (cross-linked) from their mother. Multiple intelligences, so called, (e. g, verbal, visual, logical, musical, mathematical, creative, physical, emotional, spatial) do not appear to be cross-linked at this time.

At any given time approximately 5% of the American population can be diagnosed with Major Depressive Disorder, according to Donna Israel, PhD. In adulthood, 19 million experience depressive episodes each year:

• 5%-9% being female
• 2%-3% being male

Chronic stress is a major risk factor in the development of MDD (e.g., divorce, assaults, job loss, deaths in the family, chronic pain). Depression appears unrelated to ethnicity, education, income, or marital status. There does appear to be a genetic vulnerability: a 50% risk factor for depression. If a family member has depression, the risk doubles. The development of MDD appears to be a combination of:

• Genetic vulnerability, and being female
• Early childhood experiences
• Major life events

MDD – Female Brains

MDD – Male Brains

• Appear to be more impacted by cultural factors. • Have a similar risk for MDD until age 12. After that 10%-18% of girls are at risk. • Adult lifetime risk is twice as high (e.g., 10%-25%). • May report symptoms such as hopelessness, fatigue, low self-esteem, and helplessness. • May have associated anxiety, panic attacks, phobias, and eating disorders. • Appear more susceptible to low levels of stress, which are more likely to result in depression. • Attempt depression-related suicide more frequently but succeed less often. • Are more likely to experience early life stress (ELS) and are more likely to develop depression as a result. • Are four times more likely to develop depression in adulthood if were abused in childhood. • Depression may occur earlier, last longer, be more likely to reoccur, and be more sensitive to seasonal changes such as SAD.

• Appear to be less impacted by cultural factors • Have a similar risk for MDD until age 12. After that 6%-8% of boys are at risk. • Adult lifetime risk is lower (e.g., 5%-12%). • Are more likely to be agitated, irritable, and self-medicate with alcohol and drugs. • Are less likely to admit depression and get treatment and are more likely to identify symptoms through work problems or impaired sexual performance (although treatment success rates are equal to those of females). • Attempt depression-related suicide less often but are more likely to succeed. • Serotonin production may be 52% higher in adolescent and adult males.

Typically, females have a lower metabolic rate and a slightly lower average body temperature, although it peaks at midday the same as for males. With a greater fat to muscle ratio, females find it harder to lose weight (e.g., fat burns fewer calories per pound). Interestingly, rich women tend to be thinner than poor women.

The increased percentage of body fat in the female not only helps to create curves, it also provides insulation. Sweat glands tend to be distributed more evenly over the body, so females tend to perspire more efficiently, and cool off faster. In addition, the thicker layer of fat provides females with an extra energy reserve. When a female runs out of glycogen (carbohydrates stored in muscle tissue), her body can switch over to fat reserves. Her female sex hormones can help her muscles utilize bar more easily than male muscles can. And, weight for weight, fat yields more than twice as much energy as glycogen. Males, on the other hand, have a metabolic rate of 6-7% higher. They tend to burn 3.7 calories per square foot of skin surface per hour (while females burn only 3.5 calories per hour). Thus, males expend more energy just because they are male. Does this contribute to males burning out at a slightly earlier age? Perhaps so, but it may also contribute to their having an easier time of it if they want to lose weight! With their higher muscle to fat ratio, males tend to lose weight faster (e.g., muscle tissue burns 5 more calories per pound as compared to fat). Generally, rich men tend to be fatter than poor men.

Females	Males
• Females average 50% of their total body weight in strength. • They generally have one-third the upper body strength and only half the lower body strength of the comparable male. • The abdominal muscles are equal in strength to those of a comparable male but tend to be more elastic and flexible to accommodate pregnancy.	• Males average 90% of their total body weight in strength. • They generally have 3 times the upper body strength and twice the lower body strength of the comparable female. • The abdominal muscles are equal in strength to those of a comparable female.

The topic of gender differences is at once exciting and open to misunderstanding if not downright intimidating. Human beings have been arguing about and surviving gender differences for eons, although sometimes the process hasn’t been accomplished with much understanding or grace, to say nothing of enjoyment! What is for certain is that none of us has all the answers or possesses the definitive edge on truth, especially in the area of male/female differences. There are a couple of caveats to consider.

It’s important to avoid ascribing characteristics to an entire gender based on the fact that we know one man or one woman very well. Some so-called gender differences may relate more to other factors such as sensory system preference, extroversion-introversion preference, thinking process preference, past personal experiences, and strong beliefs or expectations When you react out of proportion to any given situation, especially when the situation involves cross-gender communication, the overreaction typically relates to the something in your past. Something about the current situation reminded your brain of a past event (e.g., unhealed woundedness, unrecovered grief event, abuse, shaming) and brought the force of that event to bear on the present. An overreaction can be a gift of sorts, a clue to encourage you to become your own Sherlock Holmes and do some family-of-origin work. Certainly it can help to avoid shooting the messenger and to avoid blaming the individual in the present whose actions may simply have served as a trigger for your own memory processes. The Puzzle Who you are is determined in large part by the nature/nurture puzzle. In this context, the word nature refers to your internal genetic programs that tell the brain how to develop and function. Nature includes your generational inheritance of genes and chromosomes as well as your innate giftedness (e.g., gender brain preference, extroversion-introversion preference, sensory system preference, thinking process preference, and sex-preferred behaviors). According to Andreasen, roughly half of the human genes are devoted to determining characteristics of your brain. The word nurture, on the other hand, refers to external environmental factors that act upon the brain to shape its development. It includes exposure to hormones and other substances or activities during gestation as well as all the external environmental experiences that occur after birth. It also includes behavioral patterns that are passed down to you in your family lines, behavioral patterns that will likely also influence the subsequent generations. Nurture also includes your opportunities, disasters, experiences, personal choices/decisions, and the accumulated effect of what you have learned. Nature and nurture clearly collaborate during gestation but they collaborate after birth, as well. For example, within 24 hours of birth baby girls focus more intently on the caregiver. If spoken to, the amount of time the baby girl focuses with attention increases even more. The question then becomes: “Does the caregiver talk more to baby girls than baby boys because of the response received from the baby girls?” If so, to what extent does nurture (e.g., caregiver behaviors) exaggerate an innate difference? The nature-nurture answers impact every area of life for your entire life including:

• Level of wellness
• Relationships
• Learning style
• Career choices
• Approach to politics/religion
• Overall success
• Comfort level

Nature and nurture are so closely related to one another that by the age of one year it’s almost impossible to separate the contribution of nature versus nurture.

Males generally are less sensitive to pain with at least one exception. They may actual experience more muscle aches and pains during episodes of the flu. I’m sure you’ve heard more than one woman comment that her male partner is “such a baby” whenever he’s sick. Males do feel more shaky and are much more likely to complain of aches and pains when ill. This may be due to the face that their muscles are less well equipped to adjust to change (as compared to female muscles that are better equipped to survive a constantly changing environment where hormone levels rise and fall, and when water retention varies).

Females generally tend to feel pain more acutely. A 1997 study by neuroscientist Dr. Karen Berkley at Florida State University determined that women have higher comfort thresholds, higher soreness ratings (estrogen has been linked to elevated levels of soreness), and a greater ability to discriminate different types of impediments in comparison to men. Depending on the culture, females may bear physical pain (e.g., childbirth), more or less stoically. Women report more general headaches, up to twice as many as males, and take 75% of the analgesics that are prescribed. Recent studies also indicate that adult women may have more difficulty with bone/joint health and may have increased vulnerability in the musculoskeletal areas of the body.

Metaphorically, the male brain and the female brain can be compared to a calculator.

Female Brains

Male Brains

• Tends to function much like a calculator without printout capability. If you could cut the brain open during thought processing, you could see that the brain is moving through a process to arrive at an answer similar to that of a male brain. However, the female brain has no printout function. • May arrive at a conclusion more quickly with her generalized style of processing, but cannot verbalize the steps her brain went through in the same way as does the male brain.

• Tends to function much like a calculator that is wired with printout capability. Simply possessing printout ability doesn’t guarantee a correct or even optimal answer. It means that the typical male brain can figure out and verbalize the steps the brain went through to arrive at the answer. • Can usually sequentially rehearse the process. It may take longer to arrive at a conclusion but it can usually identify (e.g., print out) the steps the brain went through in order to arrive at an answer.

Unenlightened, both genders may mistrust a female-brain’s conclusion when attempting to solve problems. Males become accustomed to generating a printout and may assume that all brains come with this capability. Many females have a history of being shamed or blamed for no printout ability. Consequently if pressed, they will try to come up with reasons for the answer (but a reason is different from rehearsing the sequential steps the brain went through). When asked why they thought such and such, females have been socialized to respond with some type of reason although they rarely produce the type of answer expected by the opposite gender.

In some cases females may clam up rather than say they are unable to verbalize the “steps” in the same manner that the male brain does. Some females may even prevaricate (lie) about their reasoning, a tendency that can escalate arguments. When females do present reasons, they may be very rational but those reasons still don’t tend to represent the same type of sequential steps that males are accustomed to identifying with their style of processing. Unless and until both genders understand that brains differ in the presence or absence of printout capability, males may become frustrated or even discount female answers when an expected printout of the sequential steps is not readily forthcoming. And females may feel inadequate when they aren’t able to produce the same type of printout that males have become accustomed to. It’s neither good nor bad. It is different. A Word about Logic Our society has tended to correlate logical thinking to the male brain and illogical thinking to the female brain. That’s a dangerous assumption, number one. Second, it can set up human beings to feel shamed and put down if their communication is labeled as not logical. The word logical has been used and misused. In terms of brain function, it describes a style inductive-deductive reasoning, often both utilized and prized in research. Many individuals have been intimidated if not outright shamed because their verbalizations were not presented in an inductive-deductive format. Logic is thought to be housed in the left frontal lobe. Therefore, individuals (regardless of gender) who have a preference for processing information using the left frontal lobe can be thought of as logical thinkers. The thought-processing styles of other portions of the brain are rationale (given the brain is not impaired), but may not be logical in the sense of inductive-deductive reasoning.

Paula and Jake were discussing the “rules are sacred” perspective of the male brain. “I have the list of rules,” he said, grinning. “The list?” Paula asked. “Yes, the list,” he confirmed.“Ten rules.”

1. We need the toilet seat up. If you need it down, put it down. You don’t hear us complaining about your leaving it down.

2. Birthdays, Valentine’s Day, and anniversaries are not exam situations to determine if we’ve found the perfect gift. Ask for what you want. Don’t hint. Just say it! We cannot read minds. Our lack of mind-reading ability is a genetic thing, not evidence that we don’t care about you!

3. Dates are extremely energy-intensive to track. If you want us to pay attention to specific dates, mark them on the calendar. In addition, if they are really important to you, remind us frequently ahead of time. We’re happy to remember, we just need the reminder!

4. Christopher Columbus did not need directions, and neither do we. We’ll still get there faster than he did!

5. Sunday and sports go together like a full moon and tides. Accept it. Whenever possible, say whatever you have to say during the commercials. By the way, shopping is not a sport and never will be.

6. Yes or no are perfectly acceptable answers to almost every question you can think of. And if you ask a question for which you really don’t want an answer, expect an answer you really don’t want to hear.

7. Bring us a problem only if you want help solving it. That’s what we do—fix things. Get sympathy from your girlfriends.

8. A headache that lasts for 17 months could be a definite problem. Make an appointment with your doctor. And while you’re at it, check your oil. Please!

9. If we ask what is wrong and you say nothing, we will take your word at face value. We may think you’re lying, but it’s too much hassle trying to help you figure it out.

10. Ask us to do something or tell us how you want it accomplished. One or the other! If you already know the best way to do it, why not just do it and get it over with?

After a pregnant pause, Paula said, “Well, I have ten definitions.” She went on to explain to Jake that the definitions were designed to help males understand women’s speech more easily. “Ten definitions,” she repeated. “Here they are.”

1. Fine. This word signifies the end of any argument when women feel they are right but can’t stand to hear you argue any longer. It means that you should shut up. By the way, this is not the word to use when you’ve been asked to describe how she looks. To do so will likely lead to one of the arguments mentioned above.

2. Nothing. Actually this word means the opposite from its usual definition. It means that you need to be alert and pay attention. This word is often used to indicate that a woman feels like she’d like to turn you inside out, upside down, and backwards¾at the very least! It is usually the signal for an argument that will last at least ten minutes and end with the word fine.

3. Go Ahead. This phrase often means the opposite from its usual definition, too, especially if a raised eyebrow accompanies it. These words do not indicate permission to do something. On the contrary they represent something of a dare! If you mistake them for permission, the result will be that the woman may upset over nothing, and you’ll experience a ten-minute discussion that will end with the word fine. On the other hand, this phrase without a raised eyebrow does not indicate permission, either. Rather, it signifies that the woman really means, “I give up,” or “Do what you want because I don’t care. It is frequently preceded by a few seconds of raised eyebrow and followed by nothing and fine. Not to worry. She’ll likely speak to you again in ten or fifteen minutes when she cools off a bit.

4. Ten minutes. These words actually define the space of approximately half an hour. It is the equivalent to the ten minutes that your sports broadcast is going to last before you take out the trash, or let the dog to do its thing, or come to bed. There shouldn’t be anything complicated about this.

5. A Sigh. Although not actually a word, sighs are an important form of communication, and one of the few non-verbal sounds that are common to female speech. Men also frequently misunderstand them since sighs are rarely used in male speech. A loud sigh indicates that the woman is beginning to wonder if you are a complete idiot, and asking herself why she is spending her time arguing with you over nothing. A very soft sigh, on the other hand, suggests that the woman is momentarily content. Males are advised to remain still and hold their breathe in the hope that the moment will last for a long time.

6. Oh. Generally, the word “oh,” especially when followed by almost any other statement, signifies that big trouble about to break over the landscape of your life. For instance, you might say, “I told your mother what you were up to last night.” If the woman opens her mouth and says, “Oh,” and looks like she is going to say anything else at all, do not walk—run from the room. Eventually she may say she isfine, but don’t expect any level of quality conversation for a minimum of two weeks.

7. That’s Okay. Pay close attention to this one. This phrase constitutes one of the most innuendo-laden statements a woman can make to a man. It indicates that she wants to think long and hard before deciding what the penalty will be for whatever you have done. This phrase is frequently used in conjunction with the word fine, accompanied by a raised eyebrow. Don’t be misled. Once she’s had sufficient time to plan, you may be in for some mighty big trouble. Refer to “Oh” above.

8. Please Do. First of all, this is not a statement. It is an offer. Avoid confusing the two. When she uses these words, a woman is giving you the opportunity to come up with an excuse for what you have done. Sometimes this is a chance to get into even more trouble! The good news is that if you handle this correctly, perhaps you can avoid hearing the phrase, that’s okay.

9. Thanks. If you hear this word, don’t faint and don’t look for hidden meanings. The woman is simply indicating her appreciation. Just say, “You’re welcome,” and let it go at that. Avoid shaking your head in amazement for the next hour. It’ll take more energy than it’s worth.

10. Thanks a Lot. Although you may not realize it at first, this phrase differs dramatically from the word thanks. A woman tends to say thanks a lot when she is majorly (if not monumentally) ticked off, usually at you. Sometimes this phrase is followed by a loud sigh. If this occurs, it is usually a signal that her feelings have been hurt in some way. It is usually unhelpful to ask what is wrong after hearing a loud sigh. At that point in time, she will likely tell you nothing (see above definition), and if you can avoid an argument, it is prudent to do so.

Summary: Although both the rules and the definitions are, of course, tongue-in-cheek, it’s amusing to note that the definitions took more words than the rules. This can help to point out how much adrenaline human beings can pump, how much energy they can expend, and how much ado people can often make over much of nothing! There is a better way. Understanding more about gender tendencies can offer options for more functional behaviors.

• Different. When the word different is used on this web site it simply means unlike. It doesn’t imply good or bad, desirable or undesirable, and certainly not equal or unequal. Equality is a political, ethical, and social concept that, by definition, suggests neither superiority nor inferiority. Some sociologists believe that males have been conditioned to believe they have an innate right to rule over other human beings, especially females. Some males even tend to believe that different from womenequates with being superior. Females, on the other hand, are more certain that democracy is the preferred form of government (e.g., there have been very few female absolute dictators in history) although they, too, have been socialized to accept male rule in many cases.

• Sex versus Gender. There are differing definitions for both these words. Some of them allude to characteristics, others to biology, and still other to behaviors. For all practical purposes I use these two terms interchangeably to encompass all factors related to maleness/masculinity and femaleness/femininity. • Exclusive Heterosexual – an individual who wants to exhibit sexual behaviors only with a member of the opposite sex. Nonexclusive heterosexuals may choose to exhibit sexual behaviors with a member of the same sex in specific instances (e.g., during periods of incarceration, while a partner is pregnant). • Exclusive Homosexual – an individual who wants to exhibit sexual behaviors only with a member of the same sex. Nonexclusive homosexuals, or bisexuals, may choose to engage in sexual behaviors with members of the same or opposite sex, depending on the person and the environment. • Transsexual – an individual whose brain does not seem to match his/her genitals (may undergo sex-change surgery to make genitals match his/her core identity). • Transvestite – an individual who wears clothing of the opposite sex in order to become sexually aroused. • Adrenogenital Syndrome (AGS) – a 46XX chromosome female who was subjected to high levels of masculinizing hormones during gestation. Has internal organs of a female plus a penis and scrotum. Child is usually raised as a boy. • Androgen-insensitivity syndrome (AIS) – a 46XY chromosome male who was insensitive to masculinizing hormones during gestation. Has internal male organs plus a vagina (although it doesn’t go anywhere). Child is usually raised as a girl. • Sexual identity – a label for the core sexual belief an individual has about him/herself as a male or a female. It has its origin in the gestational hormonal bath that occurs near the end of the first trimester of fetal development. Sex organs, child rearing, pubertal hormones, and societal reinforcement can play a role but likely only reinforce or disturb one’s core identity that is present at time of birth.

Many behaviors in adulthood, including the way in which people view problems and their potential solutions, can no doubt be traced back to childhood experiences and style of socialization. These would include the type of play activities engaged in as well as the type of toys that were provided, permitted, or available. One’s personal histories in these areas can differ dramatically and can impact their nature-nurture combination.

Jessica’s Story…

Jessica has three sons and one daughter. The twins, her first family, as she often refers to them, are seventeen. Her next family consists of Joel who is five and Janice who is seven.  Jessica purchases model kits for both of the younger children because she wants to give them similar learning opportunities. It continues to amaze her, however, that even though Janice can read much more proficiently than can Joel, he is much quicker than his sister at assembling a model. In fact, he rarely even looks at the diagram! Comment: Janice likely reads more easily since her left hemisphere was more developed at birth and she may find assembly more of a challenge even if she is the older of the two. Jake likely assembles models more easily since his left hemisphere was more developed at birth, home of visual-spatial abilities. No matter! Each child will find some tasks easier and each will get to practice some that are more of a challenge. In terms of who likes to play with what it can be difficult to distinguish between innate preferences (nature) versus behaviors that have been shaped by the expectations (nurture) of family, school, church, work, culture, and society. It can be beneficial for boys and girls to have opportunities to play with and experience a range of toys and games as long as caregivers understand that there are and will be differences in abilities, preferences, and choices. Joel likely finds it easier to assemble models since his right hemisphere was more developed at birth. He will also likely find reading directions more of a challenge.

Play Objects and Selection

Growing up, children play with objects. Sometimes those objects were sleek state-of-the-art toys. Often they were create-your-own-from-whatever-was-available toys. Either way, children play with what they have, and what they have influences the types of skills they develop. Studies show that when children can select play objects from a large assortment of items, they make different choices. Review a comparison sampling in the table that follows.

Female Brains Many (but not all) tend to gravitate toward toys and play objects that: Resemble human beings or animals (e.g., dolls, stuffed animals) Are used to help people (e.g., dishes, cooking utensils, sewing implements) Help them learn something connected with people (e.g., cooking TV shows) Allow them to connect and communicate with others (e.g., e-mail and cell-phone talking or texting; computer programs such as Facebook, Twitter, and others)

Male Brains  Many (but not all) gravitate toward: Nonhuman objects or representations such as Star Wars, Superman, or science-fiction figures LEGO® toys, Lincoln Logs, model kits, or their more modern equivalents Computer games or programs that allow them to explore Real-time games involving competition that are observed or played Vehicles, planes, ships, submarines, space ships, and rockets (especially those involved in transportation, exploration, construction, or war)

NOTE: Girls with Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia tend to gravitate toward boys’ toys (so called) and toward more male-type activities and interests (e.g., cars, engineering) in adulthood. This suggests that some choices may be related to nature (e.g., testosterone levels). Others are more likely related to the spoken or unspoken expectations of what was okay for them to do based on gender identification. Comment: Many parents, care-providers, and teachers are consciously providing a wider assortment of toys for children of both genders than perhaps was the stereotypical pattern in the past. Aside from gender considerations, this can be very beneficial for children from the perspective of extroversion/introversion, sensory preference, and brain lead. At least a nodding acquaintance with a wider variety of objects can impact one’s willingness to try something new. This perspective can carry over into career choices, as well.

Play as Work

According to Fred Rogers:

Play is often talked about as if it were a relief from serious learning. But for children, play is serious learning. Play is really the work of childhood.

Jeni’s Story…

Jeni visited her uncle’s farm for the first time when she was nine years old. Her three male cousins, ranging in age from seven to eleven, were anxious to show her everything. It didn’t take her long to notice that even the seven-year old was allowed to drive the tractor.

At bedtime of the second day Jeni kneeled down to say evening prayers. “Dear God, I really like the farm (long pause) but I wish I was a boy. Is there anything that can be done about that? Amen!”

“Oh, Jeni! Her mother exclaimed. “A girl is a girl is a girl! Why ever would you wish to be a boy? I’m so happy to have a little girl!’’

“Because,” said Jeni slowly, distinctly, and somewhat dramatically, “boys are allowed to do ever so many more things and have better toys. I hate being a girl!”

Play Characteristics and Socialization

Female Brains Tend to play in small groups where there may be several leaders. Tend to have more informal group experiences. Conversation is important and occurs frequently. Most of the sounds made involve actual words. Bond via emotional pain (e.g., share secrets with each other). Tend to have less field independence Games are often noncompetitive. Learn it is important to be liked.

Male Brains Tend to play in large groups with usually one leader. Tend to have more organized team experiences. Conversation may be used to direct and inform but occurs less frequently. Perhaps 40% of the sounds made do not involve actual words and are descriptive noises. Bond through physical pain (e.g., wrestle, fight) and may be “best friends” after the fight). Generally are given (and often demand) more field independence Games are usually competitive. Learn it is important to win.

Comment: Children become socialized during their play experiences. Differing childhood environments involving differing toys and play objects, as well as differing play experiences tend to result, at least stereotypically, in differing experiences for girls and boys. In general: Females are socialized to be gentle, compliant, somewhat dependent, conforming, inclusive, nurturing, and manipulative. They learn to value “we” over “I.” They don’t usually try to obtain recognition for what they do, so they receive less credit for their work. Males are socialized to be tough, assertive, independent, individualistic, exclusive, competitive, and somewhat exploitative. They learn to value “I” over “we.” And they usually try to make sure they are recognized for what they do and so receive more credit for their work.

Teamwork Characteristics

The way in which you approach cross-gender teamwork in adulthood is impacted by your socialization experiences during your growing-up years. Typically, males and females approach teamwork differently.

Ed’s and Alicia’s Story…

Ed and Alicia were discussing a situation that was the talk of their community. “It’s simple,” Ed pronounced emphatically. “They need to get their act together and function as a team!”  Alicia pursed her lips. “That seems a bit cut and dried.” She thought for a minute. “Maybe if they got to know each other better the problem just might take care of itself.”  Ed rolled his eyes. “Not likely!” After a pause he added, “What is it with you women? Being friends won’t solve anything. Going by the rules just might!” Following are examples of the way in which males and females typically approach teamwork situations:

Female Brains Experience-oriented, expressive Collaborative, work together Much conversations Long-term planners Value the person above the team/game Are willing to change the rules

Male Brains Goal-oriented, instrumental Competitive, work side-by-side Little conversation Short-term planners Value the team or game above the person Believe that rules are sacred

Summary

In the big scheme of life your personal history influences the type of activities with which you feel comfortable as well as your teamwork style. Fortunately, in adulthood, you have the ability to make a conscious choice to evaluate the experiences you had growing up and hone skills that can result in more effective outcomes, if needed.

Brain Type Impact

Testosterone appears to an important variable in determining brain type or sex-typical behavior. There are three developmental periods when testosterone secretion surges: the prenatal period between 8-24 weeks, 5 months after birth, and at puberty. For example, the nature/nurture combination impact can be seen in the connection between testosterone and aggression. Metaphorically, think of the testosterone-assertiveness connection using the metaphor of a radio. Imagine that each of us is a radio and that we are born with the power switch turned on. Testosterone is the volume-regulator (at least for assertion and aggressiveness). The higher the level of testosterone, the greater the tendency to exhibit assertive or aggressive behaviors. Assertiveness Impact In addition to surges related to developmental periods, testosterone secretion increases in the presence of any form of competition including active participation in a competitive situation, or virtual participation through observation (although the relative rise appears to be much more dramatic in the male body than in the female body). Assertive/aggressive behaviors tend to escalate in both genders as testosterone levels rise. Since testosterone tends to increase in presence of competition, dating after an exciting competition (e.g., football game, track and field competition) can be a dangerous affair. This phenomenon may also play a factor in date rape.

Females	Males
• Overall, females are less assertive and lose their temper half as often (likely due to a combination of lower testosterone levels and socialized expectations). • Hormones appear to provide some protection against specific diseases (e.g., heart disease) prior to menopause.	• Males are generally more assertive (likely due to higher testosterone levels) and lose their temper twice as often. • Males experience a type of menopause and tend to handle this more easily if they experienced an unhappy childhood.

NOTE: Males and females have identical hormones in their bodies. The relative levels differ, however. In females, the estrogens and progesterone dominate. At puberty, testosterone levels in the female body may be only 1/20th of the levels found in the bodies of comparable males. In males, testosterone dominates. Overall testosterone levels may be 10-15 times higher. At puberty, male testosterone levels may be 20 times higher than levels in the bodies of comparable females.

In The Essential Difference: The Truth About the Male and Female Brain, the author presented a Gender Continuum that he says encompasses 95% of the human brains on this planet. It is designed to portray the differences between the qualities of systemizing and empathizing.

Three broad bands of individuals encompass about 95% of the population in terms of brain type, although about 5% of brains will fall outside these three groups based on the way in which the brains developed during gestation:

• Systemizing is stronger – typically equated with a male brain
• Empathizing is stronger – typically equated with a female brain
• Systemizing and empathizing functions are equally represented

At one end of the Gender Continuum you would find the extreme hyper-male systemizing brain, while at the other end you would find the extreme super-female brain. Gender Continuum

<————-95% of the population————>

Systemizing Brain	50-50 Bridge Brain	Empathizing Brain
Higher level in the typical male brain so more associated with the male brain	May have equal levels of both qualities	Higher level in the typical female brain so is more associated with the female brain

Helen Fischer, author of The First Sex, wrote that placement on the Gender Continuum may depend partly on the amount and timing of hormones to which the fetus was subjected during pregnancy. Since the body housing does not necessarily match the type of brain that resides therein, the Gender Continuum could contain females with male-differentiated brains, males with female-differentiated brains, and, of course, individuals with ambiguous or more androgynous brain-body differentiation. Whether or not your brain would register on this Gender Continuum (and some day there may be an assessment that can discover this with some level of certainty), the concept and information may be helpful as you relate with others. According to Dr. Johnson in The Sexual Spectrum: Why We’re All Different, the brain actually has two separate neural pathways for masculine and feminine behaviors, making them independent of one another. In terms of psychological masculinity and femininity, some checklists give an individual two scores:  one indicating degree of masculinity and one indicating degree of femininity (because it is believed that most human are a mix of characteristics). If an individual is very masculine or very feminine, one score could be high and the other low. If the individual was extremely androgynous both scores could be similar. Brain type appears to be able to exist independent of chromosomal complement. Since the body housing does not necessarily match the type of brain that resides therein, the Gender Continuum could conceivably contain individuals with a female body and male-differentiated brains, individuals with a male body and female-differentiated brains, and, of course, individuals with ambiguous or more androgynous brain and/or body differentiation.

NOTE:  Studies of fetal rats, mice, and guinea pigs show that regardless of chromosomes present, their brains can be altered based on the type/amount of hormones that are present during gestation. The same may be true for human brains, as well. Science has not yet evolved in terms of study modalities to permit prospective longitudinal studies of gender brain differences including that of sexual brain orientation. This means that what a child appears to be at birth (girl or boy) in terms of external genitalia doesn’t always match either the chromosomal pattern or brain type.

Females may utilize some specific right hemisphere functions (e.g., three-dimensional spatial visualization) less efficiently, although this may be related in part to nurture (e.g., a lack of field independence at a time when spatial visualization functions could have been developed and honed). Males tend to have more field independence during childhood, which helps to hone skills such as three-dimensional / spatial visualization.

A summary table follows:

Female Brain	Male Brain
• A female-style of brain function is considered to be the default position in terms of brain development.	• The presence of a “Y” chromosome calls for the mother’s androgens to give the brain a chemical-hormonal bath designed to alter its development and function. If everything goes right, the male fetal brain is exposed to male hormone levels that are four times higher than levels present during childhood.
• The left hemisphere is believed to mature earlier, which gives girls an advantage from kindergarten through at least middle school.	• The right hemisphere is believed to mature earlier. This is interesting in view of the fact that males are socialized to the left side of the brain beginning early in life.
• The brains develop faster and reach a gray-matter peak about age 11. In adulthood it will be slightly smaller and lighter than a comparable male brain.	• The brains develop more slowly and reach a gray-matter peak about age 12. In adulthood it will be approximately 10% heavier.
• More than twelve areas of size comparison have been identified. Three areas are larger in the female brain (e.g., basal ganglia, language comprehension areas).	• Nine areas are larger in the male brain although the significance of this, if any, is not clear.

Having a good ear for music really means having a good brain for music. It requires the combined efforts of the ear and the triune brain for us to hear music (the simultaneous processing of melodies, rhythms, and harmonies plus the manipulating of complex patterns of sound). The basic mechanisms for recognizing individual sounds are hard wired into the human nervous system. These mechanisms take the cacophony of sensory stimuli reaching our ears and stimulating our skin and group them into meaningful chunks that we experience as coherent music. The groups of sound are fused together according to place in space, which forms the basis for seating similar instruments together in an orchestra. Tones that are closer in pitch are grouped together so we perceive harmony. Other tones are grouped in a manner that help us to experience tempo and timbre.

Sound waves result from the alternate compression and decompression of air molecules. Sounds that are heard most acutely by human ears are those from sources that vibrate at frequencies between 500 and 5000 hertz (one Hz equals one cycle per second) although the entire audible range extends from 20-20,000 Hz. Speech sounds contain frequencies mainly between 1000 and 3000 Hz. The high “C,” sung by a coloratura soprano, has a dominant frequency at 1048 Hz. The frequency of the sound vibration is known as its pitch. One musical tone can consist of 20-30 different frequencies. The greater the frequency of vibration, the higher the pitch. The greater the size or intensity of vibration, the louder the sound. The auditory cortex helps to simplify incoming auditory data, suppressing noise, and sharpening the edges of important components. We begin to detect pitch after 13 thousandths of a second, loudness after about 50 thousandths, and timber at around 100 thousandths of a second. Outer Ear The outer ear or pinna (Latin for feather) amplifies sounds by funneling vibrations into the ear canal. The ear canal, approximately 1 inch in length, conducts the airwaves to the eardrum, which resonates to boost the frequencies. In response to the faintest sound the brain can decode, the eardrum moves only the width of one hydrogen atom. Middle Ear The middle ear contains three tiny bones called ossicles. They mechanically move in response to the trigger of the vibrating eardrum and transmit the sound wave data to fluid in the inner ear. The middle ear is fitted with a braking system to prevent as much as 2/3 of very loud sounds from reaching the inner ear. The braking reflex begins within 1/100th of a second of the onset of the sound, but can require up to ½ a second to achieve full force so it’s not very helpful for sudden noises such as gunshot. In addition, the brake muscles can become exhausted by long exposure to very loud sounds (e.g., construction noises, factory sounds, rock concerts). There is some decline in the upper limit of our hearing as we age (e.g., presbyacusis), connected with a slight shrinkage in the cochleae that form part of the inner ear. Outside of that, hearing loss usually involves some type of nerve malfunction in the processing of vibrations. Prolonged exposure to loud sound is a prime culprit. Inner Ear The inner ear, also called the labyrinth because of its complicated series of canals, converts sound vibrations into information that can be decoded by the brain. Think of it as the concert hall of the nervous system. Both the middle and inner portions of the ear are enclosed in the hardest bone in the body. Although both temporal lobes of the thinking brain can decode sound, the tracks divide unequally once they leave the ear. The broader path connects the ear to the opposite hemisphere, the smaller path connects to the hemisphere on the same side as the ear. This means that sounds entering the right ear are more likely to be decoded in the left temporal lobe and vice versa. In addition, each hemisphere orchestrates different functions related to sound. The left deals primarily with the identification and naming of sounds while the right is more concerned with the musical quality of sound including rhythm and melody perception.

Males and females tend to process information differently. Metaphorically this can be compared to a trunk versus a cabinet. In general, the female brain can be compared to a storage trunk where everything is together in one or two sections. When you search for something in a trunk you tend to bump into or come across other items. In a similar manner the female brain bumps into a variety of information when it is processing a problem. This can provide additional options to consider. It can also lead to a tendency to integrate, compound, and stew about the information, sometimes making a mountain out of a molehill!

Females can find it more difficult to mentally compartmentalize or separate what happens on the job with what happens at home, or socially. Eloise could have (had she understood more about the brain) mentally created a lovely hatbox or a sleek attaché case in which to compartmentalize the morning’s argument. She could have made a decision to open the box/case that evening rather than allow it to negatively impact her interactions all day long. The male brain, on the other hand, can be thought of as resembling a cabinet that has many separate drawers, boxes, and compartments with doors/lids. The male brain tends to mentally compartmentalize (e.g., separate home, social, and work events) more easily. Their brain segments and separates the information it is processing so they tend to concentrate on the present moment to the exclusion of the past or the future. The male brain can put something away, as it were, behind a little door or in a little box and let it sit there while the brain consciously thinks about something else. The down side is that the brain may fail to resurface what was put away so it can be addressed appropriately and in a timely manner.

Female Brain – Trunk Metaphor

Male Brain – Cabinet Metaphor

Imagine a couple who had an argument one morning before each left for work. When the male left the house, metaphorically he put their argument into a pigeonhole in his mental cabinet and opened the work drawer. He didn’t go back to the information in the pigeonhole all day. It might have been helpful had he done so on the way home, however. That could have helped him be better prepared to deal with his partner when he walked into the kitchen. The female, on the other hand, dumped the argument into her trunk. All day long she bumped into it as she used her brain, and the memory of the argument impacted all her interactions. Her perception of the importance of the argument changed as well. The memory grew like yeast and by the time she arrived home from work she was very upset. That morning’s argument had indeed become a mountain. When her male partner arrived home after work, the argument took on a life of its own.

Females • Perhaps because of their tendency toward a more generalized processing style, females tend to take criticism more personally (on or off the job). • When criticized, they often find it difficult to separate the criticism of their behaviors from themselves as individuals and their self-esteem may fall. • They may have more difficulty working with people they do not like.

Males • Perhaps because of their tendency toward a more lateralized processing style, males (when criticized on the job) tend to take criticism less personally and often look for something in the environment to point to as a contributor to the criticized behavior. • They usually find it easier to separate criticism of their behaviors from themselves as individuals. • They tend to be able to work more easily with people they may not like.

Males tend to have a long-range narrow, tunnel-vision style (e.g., built-in binoculars). They may find it easier to locate items that are further away (e.g., signs, markers, hunting quarry). They may also be less distracted by other things in the environment as they hone in on the quarry, whatever that is.

Females on the other hand tend to have a short-range, wide, peripheral-vision style. Typically they find it easier to locate specific items in cupboards, drawers, and refrigerators as their vision takes in more of the immediate environment. Summary of Selected Vision Differences

Females • Have more of the smaller, thinner P ganglion cells which process color and texture • Are prewired to be more interested in faces. • Tend to prefer colors such as red, orange, green, and beige as P cells are prewired to be most sensitive to them. • When helping a girl with her school assignment, smile and look her in the eye • Role-playing or writing essay on “how you feel” can be an effective exercise

Males • Have a thicker retina containing more of the larger, thicker M cells which are “motion detectors,” so move around more than do girls. • Are prewired to be more interested in moving objects. • Tend to prefer colors such as black, gray, silver, and blue because M cells are prewired to be most sensitive to them. • When helping a boy, sit or stand shoulder to shoulder and spread materials in front of you. • Drawing a map or deconstructing passage of text analytically can be an effective exercise

NOTE: This information refers to a style of vision and not to actual visual acuity (e.g., 20/20 vision).